Food fermentation in Asia: a culinary atlas of pickles, pastes and probiotics

Food fermentation isn’t just a clever way to keep food from going bad. Rather, it’s a centuries-old alchemy that lies at the heart of Asian cooking. Across the continent, food fermentation has preserved abundance through monsoons, powered microbiomes long before “gut health” became a wellness buzzword and transformed humble vegetables, soybeans and seafood into culinary staples.

In many Asian cultures, food fermentation goes beyond condiments or side dishes. They represent memory, identity and survival. Families pass down pickle recipes like heirlooms. Communities gather for annual kimjang (kimchi-making season) or miso blending. And in kitchens from Tokyo to Kathmandu, fermented food quietly does the heavy lifting: enriching broths, seasoning stir-fries and giving depth to everything from bánh mì to bibimbap.

Also read: Eating history: Where to experience Asia’s most revered culinary traditions

Soy-based food fermentation

A glimpse at soy-sauce making (Photo: Duong Do / Pexels)

Soy sauce (shoyu/ganjang/jiangyou)

Soy sauce traces its roots to China during the Western Han dynasty (circa 206 BCE), where it began as a byproduct of fermented soybean paste known as jiang. As it travelled across Asia, it evolved to suit local palates: becoming sweeter in the Philippines (toyo), lighter and more refined in Japan (shoyu) and darker and more viscous in Indonesia (kecap manis).

Traditionally, soy sauce is made by fermenting soybeans and roasted grain (usually wheat) with koji mould, then ageing the mixture in a salt brine for several months to years. That deep, layered umami flavour is the foundation of East Asian cooking. It’s a crucial ingredient in Chinese hong shao rou (red-braised pork), Japanese teriyaki, Filipino adobo and Indonesian grilled dishes like ayam bakar.

Miso (Japan)

Miso likely evolved from the ancient Chinese jiang, but it was during Japan’s Heian period (794 to 1185) that it became uniquely Japanese. Fermented soybeans and rice or barley make up that signature rich, umami flavour and creamy texture. There are numerous varieties: shiro (white) miso, which is sweet and delicate; aka (red) miso, which is strong and salty; and awase, a more versatile blend. Regional misos, like the robust hatcho miso from Aichi, offer local flavour profiles.

While miso is more popular as a soup, it also stars in glazes for eggplant (nasu dengaku), marinades and even desserts like miso caramel. Packed with probiotics, B vitamins and minerals, it's as nourishing as it is tasty.

Doenjang (Korea)

Doenjang has been part of Korean food culture since at least the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE to 668 CE). Traditionally made by ageing blocks of dried soybean paste called meju in earthenware pots, doenjang has a rustic, deeply funky aroma and flavour that sets it apart from Japanese miso. This thick paste is used in beloved Korean stews like doenjang jjigae, as well as in ssamjang, the dipping sauce for Korean barbecue. Families would often hang meju blocks from their rafters in winter, believing the air and natural microbes imparted health benefits and depth of flavour.

Furu (China)

Furu or fermented tofu comes in several varieties. The white version has a creamy, brie-like texture, while red furu gets its colour and mild sweetness from red rice yeast. Then there’s chou doufu or stinky tofu, which is boldly pungent and revered in Taiwan and parts of southern China. Despite its intense aroma, fermented tofu has a deeply savoury profile that works beautifully in congee, stir-fried vegetables like kong xin cai (water spinach) or as a spread. Taiwan banners it so much, it even shows up in desserts, paired with sweet syrup or sticky rice.

Natto (Japan)

Legend has it that natto was discovered by accident when a samurai left boiled soybeans wrapped in straw in his bag. The result was a uniquely sticky, stringy and pungent product that’s still divisive today. Natto is often compared to stinky cheese in both smell and intensity. You can eat it over hot rice with raw egg, mustard and scallions or enjoy it in sushi rolls like natto maki. Despite its acquired taste, natto is incredibly healthy. It’s rich in vitamin K2 and nattokinase, which have both been linked to heart health and improved blood circulation.

Tempeh (Indonesia)

Tempeh is native to Java and was first recorded in 19th-century Javanese manuscripts. Unlike soy sauce or miso, which use soybean paste, tempeh is made from whole soybeans fermented with Rhizopus mould. The result is a firm, cake-like product with a nutty, earthy flavour and a satisfyingly meaty texture. Tempeh is commonly deep-fried as tempe goreng, stir-fried in oseng-oseng, or grilled inside banana leaves. As a high-protein, plant-based food with gut-friendly properties, tempeh is gaining popularity globally.

Gochujang (Korea)

Gochujang only became a fixture in Korean cuisine after chilli peppers were introduced from the Americas in the 16th century. A mixture of fermented soybeans, glutinous rice, red pepper powder and salt, gochujang has a thick, sticky texture and a flavour that balances sweet heat with fermented umami. It’s a key ingredient in tteokbokki (spicy rice cakes), bibimbap and spicy bulgogi marinades. Traditionally, gochujang was left to ferment in clay jars called onggi, which you can still see in traditional K-dramas. These allow the flavours to mature under the sun.

Fermented vegetables and pickles

Kimchi (Photo: Portuguese Gravity / Unsplash)

Kimchi (Korea)

Kimchi came from the need to preserve cabbage and vegetables during Korea’s icy winters. While early versions were white and mild, the arrival of chilli peppers (read gochujang’s backstory) changed everything. Modern kimchi is spicy, sour, garlicky and fizzy, thanks to lactic acid fermentation. It’s a staple side dish served with every Korean meal, but it also appears in kimchi jjigae (stew), pancakes (buchimgae) and fried rice. Unesco has even recognised the annual kimjang season, when families gather to make giant batches, as Intangible Cultural Heritage.

Tsukemono (Japan)

Tsukemono refers to the wide array of Japanese pickles served as palate cleansers or digestive aids. These include takuan (yellow daikon pickles), umeboshi (sour pickled plums often found in onigiri) and colourful blends like shibazuke or fukujinzuke. Each region—or even household—has its take, often passed down through generations. In Kyoto, tsukemono are essential in a traditional kaiseki meal, showcasing the balance and seasonality central to Japanese cuisine.

Pao cai (China)

From Sichuan province comes pao cai, a tangy, crunchy pickle that brims with chilli, garlic and Sichuan peppercorns. Made by fermenting vegetables like mustard greens and cabbage in a spiced brine, pao cai is a fixture in everyday Chinese meals, adding heat and brightness to noodle soups or hot pot. Some families maintain “forever brines” passed down for decades, with layers of flavour and local microbiomes lending depth to each new batch.

Suan cai (China)

More common in northern China, suan cai is fermented napa cabbage or mustard greens with a tart, vegetal flavour. It’s essential to dishes like suan cai yu (sour fish stew) or pork stir-fries, where its acidity cuts through richness. Typically made during colder months, suan cai is milder than its Sichuanese cousin, pao cai, and often used in broths or dumpling fillings.

Atchara (Philippines)

Atchara, the Filipino take on pickled papaya, has its roots in Indian achar, introduced via Spanish colonial trade. Made from grated green papaya, carrots, bell peppers and ginger, it’s pickled in vinegar and sugar to achieve a crunchy, sweet-sour balance. Atchara is indispensable alongside fatty Filipino dishes like lechon kawali, longganisa or tocino. It’s often prepared in bulk for fiestas and holidays. While often relegated as a side player, it adds a different kick to classic Filipino cuisine.

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Dưa chua / Đồ chua (Vietnam)

Vietnam’s most beloved pickles are light, quick and refreshing. Dưa chua, often made with mustard greens or napa cabbage, and đồ chua, the classic carrot-daikon pickle, bring crisp acidity to dishes like bánh mì, cơm tấm and fresh spring rolls. Pickled using rice vinegar and sugar, they lend balance and crunch to the country’s rich grilled meats and savoury broths.

Gundruk (Nepal)

Gundruk is mountain food fermentation made with sun-dried mustard greens, radish leaves or cauliflower greens with the intention for long-term storage. Its earthy sourness is used in soups, curries or pickles throughout Nepal, particularly in the winter months when fresh produce is scarce. It’s not just a food item—it’s a preservation lifeline in high-altitude communities.

Mohnyin Tjin (Myanmar)

Myanmar’s mohnyin tjin is a bold, briny pickle made from mustard greens, chillies, garlic and sticky rice. Fermented in jars or clay pots, the result is a slightly alcoholic, salty-sour condiment often eaten as a side dish or salad, dressed with sesame oil and peanuts. It appears frequently with mohinga, the national noodle soup, and pairs wonderfully with fried foods.

Fermented seafood and meat

A look at a fish sauce factory (Photo: Quang Nguyen Vinh / Pexels)

Fish sauce (nuoc mam/nam pla/patis/nga pi)

Fish sauce may have older roots than soy sauce, with some historians drawing parallels between it and Roman garum. Across Asia, anchovies or small fish are layered with salt and left to ferment in barrels for months to years. The resulting amber liquid is intensely umami and salty, with varying degrees of sweetness and funk depending on the region. It’s indispensable in Vietnamese bun cha, Thai som tam, Filipino tinola and countless dipping sauces. Each culture adapts it—Thai nam pla is bold, Filipino patis is often lighter and sweeter, while Vietnamese nuoc mam can be delicate and fragrant.

Shrimp paste (kapi/terasi/belacan/bagoong alamang)

Shrimp paste is Southeast Asia’s answer to anchovy paste—an umami bomb made from ground fermented shrimp, sun-dried and pressed into blocks. Each country has its variant: kapi in Thailand, terasi in Indonesia, belacan in Malaysia and bagoong alamang in the Philippines. It’s toasted before use to mellow the aroma, and appears in sambals, curries, stir-fries and dipping sauces. Despite its strong scent, it’s a culinary cornerstone across the region.

See more: Where does Malaysia stand in the funky world of fermented foods?

Bagoong (Philippines)

This needs a separate section altogether. The Philippines has an entire vocabulary for its fermented seafood condiments. Bagoong isda (anchovy-based) and bagoong alamang (shrimp-based) vary by region, fermentation time and seasoning. Often aged in large clay jars and sold in wet markets, bagoong can be sautéed into dishes like binagoongan, used in kare-kare (peanut stew) or eaten raw with green mangoes. Ilocano variants are especially prized and aged longer for intense flavour.

Nem chua (Vietnam)

Nem chua is a pink, tangy, slightly fizzy snack made from ground pork, garlic, chilli, sugar and rice—wrapped in banana leaves and left to ferment. It’s served cold with chilli and herbs, or grilled for a crispy finish. Despite being a meat product, the fermentation gives it a surprisingly bright acidity that offsets its richness, making it a coveted street snack in Vietnam.

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